What Were The Cultural Changes Associated With Imperialism

Cultural aspects of imperialism

A jaguar hunter and his son, natives of the Chaco Boreal. The begetter continues to wear the traditional clothing of his region while the son has already adopted Western clothing.

Cultural imperialism, likewise called cultural colonialism, comprises the cultural aspects of imperialism. "Imperialism" here refers to the cosmos and maintenance of diff relationships between civilisations, favouring a more powerful civilisation. Thus cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting and imposing a civilisation (usually that of a politically powerful state) over a less powerful gild. This may take the form of cultural hegemony of industrialised or politically and economically influential countries influencing general cultural values and standardising (globalising) civilisations elsewhere.^{[ dubious – discuss ] [ citation needed ] [i]}

The term "cultural imperialism" occurs particularly in the fields of history, cultural studies, and postcolonial theory. It is usually used in a pejorative sense, often in conjunction with calls to turn down such influence. Cultural imperialism may take diverse forms, such as an attitude, a formal policy, or military action - insofar as each of these re-inforces cultural hegemony.

Background and definitions [edit]

Indigenous children who accept been taken from their parents and placed in a Western-mode residential schoolhouse, which aimed to eliminate Indigenous linguistic communication and civilization and supplant it with English language and Christian beliefs.

Although the Oxford English language Dictionary has a 1921 reference to the "cultural imperialism of the Russians",^[2] John Tomlinson, in his book on the field of study, writes that the term emerged in the 1960s^[3] and has been a focus of research since at least the 1970s.^[4] Terms such as "media imperialism", "structural imperialism", "cultural dependency and domination", "cultural synchronization", "electronic colonialism", "ideological imperialism", and "economic imperialism" have all been used to draw the same basic notion of cultural imperialism.^[5]

Cultural imperialism is a process that intends to transition the "cultural symbols of the invading communities from 'foreign' to 'natural,''domestic,'" comments Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera.^[6] The process of Cultural Conquest often involves three detached and sequential phases:

People in new space	Objective
(ane) Merchants Also termed "explorers" e.one thousand., Lewis and Clark	Meet resources East.thou., minerals, trade routes, spices, furs, communities to tax or conscript, fertile agricultural zones, strategic geography, etc.
(2) Military An invasion force	Control resources Implement martial police so that the metropolitan may exploit resources; plant "Fort" cities, east.thousand., Fort Lauderdale, Fort Worth etc. that facilitate metropolitan settlement.
(3) Politicians Socialize the infinite into a new province of the metropolitan	Social engineering Acculturize the space into a region of the metropolitan through saturation of symbol, fable, and myth. Establish laws and norms that promote the metropolitan (invading organization) as dominant culture and prohibit or criminalize other systems; offer citizenship to conquered peoples in substitution for submission to metropolitan cultural norms and abandonment of original or other (in the case of immigrants) social tendencies.

(Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey. 2018. After American Studies: Rethinking the Legacies of Transnational Exceptionalism. Routledge. p. 24)

While the third stage continues "in perpetuity," cultural imperialism tends to exist "gradual, contested (and continues to be contested), and is past nature incomplete. The partial and imperfect configuration of this ontology takes an implicit conceptualization of reality and attempts—and often fails—to elide other forms of collective existence."^[7] In order to reach that end, cultural engineering projects strive to "isolate residents within constructed spheres of symbols" such that they (eventually, in some cases after several generations) abandon other cultures and identify with the new symbols. "The broader intended outcome of these interventions might be described equally a common recognition of possession of the land itself (on behalf of the organizations publishing and financing the images)."^[7]

Various academics link the term to specific media. American media critic Herbert Schiller wrote: "The concept of cultural imperialism today [1975] all-time describes the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into the modern world organisation and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centre of the system. The public media are the foremost example of operating enterprises that are used in the penetrative process. For penetration on a significant calibration the media themselves must be captured past the dominating/penetrating power. This occurs largely through the commercialization of broadcasting."^[8]

Tom McPhail defined "Electronic colonialism as the dependency relationship established past the importation of advice hardware, foreign-produced software, along with engineers, technicians, and related information protocols, that found a set of foreign norms, values, and expectations which, in varying degrees, may change the domestic cultures and socialization processes."^[nine] Paul Siu-Nam Lee observed that "communication imperialism can exist defined every bit the process in which the buying and control over the hardware and software of mass media as well as other major forms of communication in one country are singly or together subjugated to the domination of some other country with deleterious effects on the indigenous values, norms and culture."^[10] Ogan saw "media imperialism often described as a process whereby the United States and Western Europe produce most of the media products, make the beginning profits from domestic sales, and then market the products in Third World countries at costs considerably lower than those the countries would take to behave to produce similar products at home."^[eleven]

Downing and Sreberny-Mohammadi state: "Imperialism is the conquest and control of one country by a more powerful one. Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economical exploitation or military force. In the history of colonialism, (i.eastward., the form of imperialism in which the government of the colony is run directly past foreigners), the educational and media systems of many Third World countries have been prepare up as replicas of those in Great britain, France, or the United states and carry their values. Western advertising has fabricated further inroads, equally have architectural and mode styles. Subtly simply powerfully, the message has often been insinuated that Western cultures are superior to the cultures of the 3rd World."^[12] Needless to say, all these authors agree that cultural imperialism promotes the interests of certain circles within the imperial powers, oftentimes to the detriment of the target societies.

The issue of cultural imperialism emerged largely from communication studies.^[13] However, cultural imperialism has been used as a framework by scholars to explain phenomena in the areas of international relations, anthropology, teaching, science, history, literature, and sports.^[v]

Theoretical foundations [edit]

Many of today's academics that apply the term, cultural imperialism, are heavily informed past the work of Foucault, Derrida, Said, and other poststructuralist and postcolonialist theorists.^[5] Inside the realm of postcolonial discourse, cultural imperialism tin can be seen as the cultural legacy of colonialism, or forms of social action contributing to the continuation of Western hegemony. To some outside of the realm of this soapbox, the term is critiqued as existence unclear, unfocused, and/or contradictory in nature.^[5]

Michel Foucault [edit]

The work of French philosopher and social theorist Michel Foucault has heavily influenced utilize of the term cultural imperialism, particularly his philosophical interpretation of power and his concept of governmentality.

Following an estimation of power similar to that of Machiavelli, Foucault defines power every bit immaterial, as a "sure type of relation between individuals" that has to do with complex strategic social positions that relate to the subject's ability to control its environment and influence those effectually itself.^[fourteen] According to Foucault, power is intimately tied with his conception of truth. "Truth", as he defines information technology, is a "organization of ordered procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation, and operation of statements" which has a "circular relation" with systems of ability.^[xv] Therefore, inherent in systems of power, is always "truth", which is culturally specific, inseparable from ideology which frequently coincides with various forms of hegemony. Cultural imperialism may be an example of this.

Foucault's interpretation of governance is as well very of import in constructing theories of transnational power structure. In his lectures at the Collège de France, Foucault often defines governmentality every bit the wide art of "governing", which goes beyond the traditional conception of governance in terms of state mandates, and into other realms such as governing "a household, souls, children, a province, a convent, a religious club, a family unit".^[16] This relates directly back to Machiavelli'south treatise on how to retain political power at any toll, The Prince, and Foucault's same conceptions of truth and power. (i.eastward. diverse subjectivities are created through power relations that are culturally specific, which pb to diverse forms of culturally specific governmentality such as neoliberal governmentality.)

Edward Saïd [edit]

Informed past the works of Noam Chomsky, Foucault, and Antonio Gramsci, Edward Saïd is a founding figure of postcolonialism, established with the book Orientalism (1978), a humanist critique of The Enlightenment, which criticises Western knowledge of "The E"—specifically the English and the French constructions of what is and what is not "Oriental".^{[17] [18]} Whereby said "cognition" then led to cultural tendencies towards a binary opposition of the Orient vs. the Occident, wherein one concept is defined in opposition to the other concept, and from which they sally equally of unequal value.^[18] In Culture and Imperialism (1993), the sequel to Orientalism, Saïd proposes that, despite the formal finish of the "historic period of empire" later the 2nd Earth State of war (1939–45), colonial imperialism left a cultural legacy to the (previously) colonised peoples, which remains in their contemporary civilisations; and that said cultural imperialism is very influential in the international systems of power.^[19]

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak [edit]

A self-described "practical Marxist-feminist-deconstructionist"^[20] Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak has published a number of works challenging the "legacy of colonialism" including A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Towards a History of the Vanishing Present (1999), Other Asias (2005), and "Can the Subaltern Speak?" (1988).^[21]

In "Tin can the Subaltern Speak?" Spivak critiques common representations in the Westward of the Sati, as being controlled by authors other than the participants (specifically English language colonizers and Hindu leaders). Because of this, Spivak argues that the subaltern, referring to the communities that participate in the Sati, are not able to represent themselves through their ain voice. Spivak says that cultural imperialism has the power to disqualify or erase the cognition and mode of teaching of certain populations that are low on the social bureaucracy.^[21]

Throughout "Can the Subaltern Speak?", Spivak cites the works of Karl Marx, Michel Foucault, Walter Benjamin, Louis Althusser, Jacques Derrida, and Edward Said, amidst others.

In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason, Spivak argues that Western philosophy has a history of not only exclusion of the subaltern from discourse, but also does not allow them to occupy the space of a fully human subject.

Contemporary ideas and debate [edit]

Cultural imperialism tin can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture past individuals who do and then of their own free will. Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question.

Cultural influence tin can be seen by the "receiving" culture every bit either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity. It seems therefore useful to distinguish betwixt cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a civilization or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly scarce, with imported products.

The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such equally consumerism). Co-ordinate to one argument, the "receiving" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign civilization passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat curtained, but very potent nature, this hypothetical thought is described past some experts as "bland imperialism." For example, it is argued that while "American companies are accused of wanting to command 95 percent of the globe'due south consumers", "cultural imperialism involves much more than simple consumer goods; information technology involved the dissemination of American principles such as freedom and commonwealth", a procedure which "may sound highly-seasoned" but which "masks a frightening truth: many cultures effectually the globe are disappearing due to the overwhelming influence of corporate and cultural America".^[22]

Some believe that the newly globalised economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this procedure through the apply of new it. This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is chosen "soft ability". The theory of electronic colonialism extends the issue to global cultural bug and the impact of major multi-media conglomerates, ranging from Paramount, WarnerMedia, AT&T, Disney, News Corp, to Google and Microsoft with the focus on the hegemonic power of these mainly United States-based communication giants.

Cultural diversity [edit]

One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of cultural imperialism, voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of cultural diversity, a goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity. Proponents of this idea fence either that such diversity is valuable in itself, to preserve human historical heritage and noesis, or instrumentally valuable considering it makes bachelor more means of solving issues and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise.

Ideas relating to African colonisation [edit]

Of all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely affected by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable. In the expansive "historic period of imperialism" of the nineteenth century, scholars accept argued that European colonisation in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, particularly through neocolonisation of public education.^{[23] [24] [25]} This, arguably has led to uneven development, and further breezy forms of social control having to do with culture and imperialism.^[26] A diversity of factors, scholars argue, pb to the elimination of cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, such as "de-linguicization" (replacing native African languages with European ones), devaluing ontologies that are not explicitly individualistic,^[26] and at times going as far as to not simply define Western civilisation itself equally science, but that non-Western approaches to science, the Arts, indigenous civilization, etc. are not even knowledge.^[23] 1 scholar, Ali A. Abdi, claims that imperialism inherently "involve[south] extensively interactive regimes and heavy contexts of identity deformation, misrecognition, loss of self-esteem, and individual and social dubiousness in self-efficacy."^[26] Therefore, all imperialism would e'er, already exist cultural.

Ties to neoliberalism [edit]

Neoliberalism is often critiqued by sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural studies scholars as being culturally imperialistic. Critics of neoliberalism, at times, merits that it is the newly predominant form of imperialism.^[26] Other scholars, such as Elizabeth Dunn and Julia Elyachar have claimed that neoliberalism requires and creates its ain class of governmentality.^{[27] [28]}

In Dunn'due south work, Privatizing Poland, she argues that the expansion of the multinational corporation, Gerber, into Poland in the 1990s imposed Western, neoliberal governmentality, ideologies, and epistemologies upon the post-soviet persons hired.^[27] Cultural conflicts occurred most notably the visitor's inherent individualistic policies, such as promoting competition amidst workers rather than cooperation, and in its strong opposition to what the visitor owners claimed was bribery.^[27]

In Elyachar's work, Markets of Dispossession, she focuses on ways in which, in Cairo, NGOs forth with INGOs and the state promoted neoliberal governmentality through schemas of economic development that relied upon "youth microentrepreneurs."^[28] Youth microentrepreneurs would receive small-scale loans to build their ain businesses, similar to the way that microfinance supposedly operates.^[28] Elyachar argues though, that these programs not only were a failure, only that they shifted cultural opinions of value (personal and cultural) in a way that favoured Western ways of thinking and existence.^[28]

Ties to development studies [edit]

Often, methods of promoting development and social justice are critiqued as being imperialistic in a cultural sense. For example, Chandra Mohanty has critiqued Western feminism, claiming that information technology has created a misrepresentation of the "third globe woman" every bit being completely powerless, unable to resist male person say-so.^[29] Thus, this leads to the often critiqued narrative of the "white human being" saving the "brown woman" from the "brown man." Other, more radical critiques of development studies, have to do with the field of study itself. Some scholars even question the intentions of those developing the field of study, challenge that efforts to "develop" the Global South were never near the South itself. Instead, these efforts, it is argued, were made in guild to accelerate Western development and reinforce Western hegemony.^[30]

Ties to media effects studies [edit]

The core of cultural imperialism thesis is integrated with the political-economic system traditional arroyo in media effects research. Critics of cultural imperialism unremarkably claim that not-Western cultures, particularly from the Tertiary World, will forsake their traditional values and lose their cultural identities when they are solely exposed to Western media. Nonetheless, Michael B. Salwen, in his volume Critical Studies in Mass Advice (1991),^[thirteen] claims that cross-consideration and integration of empirical findings on cultural imperialist influences is very critical in terms of understanding mass media in the international sphere. He recognises both of contradictory contexts on cultural imperialist impacts. The first context is where cultural imperialism imposes socio-political disruptions on developing nations. Western media tin misconstrue images of strange cultures and provoke personal and social conflicts to developing nations in some cases.^[31] Another context is that peoples in developing nations resist to foreign media and preserve their cultural attitudes. Although he admits that outward manifestations of Western culture may exist adopted, but the central values and behaviours remain however. Furthermore, positive effects might occur when male-dominated cultures adopt the "liberation" of women with exposure to Western media^[32] and it stimulates ample exchange of cultural commutation.^[33]

Criticisms of "cultural imperialism theory" [edit]

Critics of scholars who discuss cultural imperialism have a number of critiques. Cultural imperialism is a term that is only used in discussions where cultural relativism and constructivism are generally taken every bit true. (Ane cannot critique promoting Western values if one believes that said values are absolutely correct. Similarly, one cannot argue that Western epistemology is unjustly promoted in non-Western societies if ane believes that those epistemologies are absolutely correct.^[5]) Therefore, those who disagree with cultural relativism and/or constructivism may critique the employment of the term, cultural imperialism on those terms.

John Tomlinson provides a critique of cultural imperialism theory and reveals major problems in the fashion in which the idea of cultural, as opposed to economic or political, imperialism is formulated. In his volume Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction, he delves into the much debated "media imperialism" theory. Summarizing inquiry on the Third World'south reception of American television shows, he challenges the cultural imperialism statement, carrying his doubts nearly the caste to which Us shows in developing nations actually acquit US values and improve the profits of US companies. Tomlinson suggests that cultural imperialism is growing in some respects, but local transformation and interpretations of imported media products propose that cultural diversification is not at an cease in global guild.^[34] He explains that one of the central conceptual mistakes of cultural imperialism is to take for granted that the distribution of cultural appurtenances can be considered every bit cultural dominance. He thus supports his argument highly criticising the concept that Americanization is occurring through global overflow of American television set products. He points to a myriad of examples of television networks who have managed to dominate their domestic markets and that domestic programs generally acme the ratings. He as well doubts the concept that cultural agents are passive receivers of information. He states that motility between cultural/geographical areas always involves translation, mutation, accommodation, and the creation of hybridity.

Other key critiques are that the term is not divers well, and employs further terms that are non divers well, and therefore lacks explanatory power, that cultural imperialism is hard to measure, and that the theory of a legacy of colonialism is not always true.^[v]

Rothkopf on dealing with cultural authorisation [edit]

David Rothkopf, managing managing director of Kissinger Assembly and an adjunct professor of international diplomacy at Columbia University (who besides served as a senior U.S. Commerce Section official in the Clinton Administration), wrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled In Praise of Cultural Imperialism? in the summer 1997 issue of Strange Policy mag. Rothkopf says that the United states should embrace "cultural imperialism" as in its self-interest. But his definition of cultural imperialism stresses spreading the values of tolerance and openness to cultural modify in club to avoid war and conflict between cultures besides as expanding accustomed technological and legal standards to provide free traders with enough security to practice business with more countries. Rothkopf's definition about exclusively involves allowing individuals in other nations to accept or turn down strange cultural influences. He likewise mentions, but only in passing, the use of the English language linguistic communication and consumption of news and pop music and film every bit cultural authorization that he supports. Rothkopf additionally makes the point that globalisation and the Internet are accelerating the process of cultural influence.^[35]

Culture is sometimes used by the organisers of order—politicians, theologians, academics, and families—to impose and ensure society, the rudiments of which alter over time as need dictates. One need only look at the 20th century's genocides. In each ane, leaders used culture as a political front to fuel the passions of their armies and other minions and to justify their deportment amid their people.

Rothkopf then cites genocide and massacres in Armenia, Russia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda and Democratic republic of timor-leste as examples of civilization (in some cases expressed in the ideology of "political culture" or organized religion) being misused to justify violence. He as well acknowledges that cultural imperialism in the past has been guilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through apply of the Inquisition, "and during the expansion of virtually every empire.".The most of import way to deal with cultural influence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, cultural diversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict:

Successful multicultural societies, be they nations, federations, or other conglomerations of closely interrelated states, discern those aspects of civilisation that do not threaten spousal relationship, stability, or prosperity (such as food, holidays, rituals, and music) and let them to flourish. But they counteract or eradicate the more destructive elements of culture (exclusionary aspects of religion, language, and political/ideological behavior). History shows that bridging cultural gaps successfully and serving as a dwelling house to diverse peoples requires certain social structures, laws, and institutions that transcend culture. Furthermore, the history of a number of ongoing experiments in multiculturalism, such equally in the European Union, Bharat, South Africa, Canada and the United states of america, suggests that workable, if not perfected, integrative models exist. Each is built on the idea that tolerance is crucial to social well-being, and each at times has been threatened by both intolerance and a heightened emphasis on cultural distinctions. The greater public good warrants eliminating those cultural characteristics that promote disharmonize or prevent harmony, even as less-divisive, more than personally observed cultural distinctions are celebrated and preserved.^[36]

Cultural dominance can too be seen in the 1930s in Australia where the Aboriginal Assimilation Policy acted every bit an endeavor to wipe out the Native Australian people. The British settlers tried to biologically modify the skin colour of the Australian Ancient people through mixed convenance with white people. The policy also fabricated attempts to forcefully adapt the Aborigines to western ideas of dress and pedagogy.^[37]

In history [edit]

Although the term was popularised in the 1960s, and was used by its original proponents to refer to cultural hegemonies in a post-colonial world, cultural imperialism has likewise been used to refer to times further in the past.

Aboriginal Hellenic republic [edit]

The Ancient Greeks are known for spreading their civilisation around the Mediterranean and Near East through trade and conquest. During the Archaic Period, the burgeoning Greek city-states established settlements and colonies across the Mediterranean Body of water, especially in Sicily and southern Italy, influencing the Etruscan and Roman peoples of the region. In the late fourth century BC, Alexander the Keen conquered Persian and Indian territories all the mode to the Indus River Valley and Punjab, spreading Greek pagan religion, art, and science along the mode. This resulted in the rise of Hellenistic kingdoms and cities beyond Egypt, the Near East, Fundamental Asia, and Northwest Bharat where Greek culture fused with the cultures of the indigenous peoples. The Greek influence prevailed even longer in science and literature, where medieval Muslim scholars in the Middle East studied the writings of Aristotle for scientific learning.

Aboriginal Rome [edit]

The Roman Empire was as well an early example of cultural imperialism.

Early Rome, in its conquest of Italian republic, alloyed the people of Etruria by replacing the Etruscan language with Latin, which led to the demise of that linguistic communication and many aspects of Etruscan civilisation.^[38]

Cultural Romanization was imposed on many parts of Rome's empire by "many regions receiving Roman civilisation unwillingly, as a form of cultural imperialism."^[39] For example, when Greece was conquered by the Roman armies, Rome set about altering the culture of Greece to conform with Roman ideals. For case, the Greek habit of stripping naked, in public, for exercise, was looked on askance by Roman writers, who considered the practice to be a cause of the Greeks' effeminacy and enslavement.^[40] The Roman example has been linked to modern instances of European imperialism in African countries, bridging the two instances with Slavoj Zizek'south discussions of 'empty signifiers'.^[23]

The Pax Romana was secured in the empire, in part, by the "forced acculturation of the culturally diverse populations that Rome had conquered."^[38]

British Empire [edit]

British worldwide expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries was an economic and political phenomenon. However, "there was also a strong social and cultural dimension to it, which Rudyard Kipling termed the 'white man's burden'." One of the ways this was carried out was by religious proselytising, by, amidst others, the London Missionary Guild, which was "an agent of British cultural imperialism."^[41] Another way, was by the imposition of educational material on the colonies for an "purple curriculum". Robin A. Butlin writes, "The promotion of empire through books, illustrative materials, and educational syllabuses was widespread, part of an education policy geared to cultural imperialism".^[42] This was also truthful of science and technology in the empire. Douglas M. Peers and Nandini Gooptu note that "Most scholars of colonial scientific discipline in Republic of india now prefer to stress the ways in which scientific discipline and engineering worked in the service of colonialism, as both a 'tool of empire' in the applied sense and as a vehicle for cultural imperialism. In other words, science developed in India in ways that reflected colonial priorities, disposed to benefit Europeans at the expense of Indians, while remaining dependent on and subservient to scientific authorities in the colonial metropolis."^[43]

The analysis of cultural imperialism carried out past Edward Said drew principally from a written report of the British Empire.^[44] Co-ordinate to Danilo Raponi, the cultural imperialism of the British in the 19th century had a much wider effect than simply in the British Empire. He writes, "To paraphrase Said, I see cultural imperialism every bit a complex cultural hegemony of a country, Great Britain, that in the 19th century had no rivals in terms of its ability to project its power across the world and to influence the cultural, political and commercial affairs of near countries. It is the 'cultural hegemony' of a land whose power to consign the most central ideas and concepts at the footing of its agreement of 'culture' knew practically no bounds." In this, for example, Raponi includes Italy.^[45]

Other pre-2d World State of war examples [edit]

The New Cambridge Modernistic History writes about the cultural imperialism of Napoleonic France. Napoleon used the Institut de France "equally an musical instrument for transmuting French universalism into cultural imperialism." Members of the Institute (who included Napoleon), descended upon Egypt in 1798. "Upon arrival they organised themselves into an Institute of Cairo. The Rosetta Rock is their almost famous find. The science of Egyptology is their legacy."^[46]

After the Get-go Earth War, Germans were worried about the extent of French influence in the annexed Rhineland, with the French occupation of the Ruhr Valley in 1923. An early on use of the term appeared in an essay by Paul Ruhlmann (as "Peter Hartmann") at that engagement, entitled French Cultural Imperialism on the Rhine.^[47]

Ties to North American Colonisation [edit]

Keeping in line with the trends of international imperialistic endeavours, the expansion of Canadian and American territory in the 19th century saw cultural imperialism employed as a means of control over indigenous populations. This, when used in conjunction of more traditional forms of ethnic cleansing and genocide in the United States, saw devastating, lasting effects on indigenous communities.

In 2017 Canada celebrated its 150-yr ceremony of the confederating of three British colonies. Equally Catherine Murton Stoehr points out in Origins, a publication organised by the history departments of Ohio Land University and Miami University, the occasion came with remembrance of Canada'south treatment of First Nations people.

A mere ix years after the 1867 signing of confederation Canada passed "The Indian Deed", a split and non equal class of government peculiarly for Kickoff Nations. The Indian Human activity remains in place today, confining and constraining Indigenous jurisdiction in every area of life, in direct contravention of the nation's founding treaties with indigenous nations.

Numerous policies focused on indigenous persons came into effect shortly thereafter. Most notable is the use of residential schools beyond Canada as a ways to remove ethnic persons from their civilisation and instill in them the beliefs and values of the majorised colonial hegemony. The policies of these schools, as described by Ward Churchill in his book Kill the Indian, Save the Human being, were to forcefully assimilate students who were oftentimes removed with strength from their families. These schools prevent students from using their native languages and participating in their ain cultural practices.

Residential schools were largely run by Christian churches, operating in conjunction with Christian missions with minimal regime oversight.

The volume, Stolen Lives: The Ethnic peoples of Canada and the Indian Residentials Schools,^[48] describes this form of operation:

The government provided little leadership, and the clergy in charge were left to decide what to teach and how to teach it. Their priority was to impart the teachings of their church building or gild—non to provide a good teaching that could assistance students in their post-graduation lives.

In a The New York Times op-ed, Gabrielle Scrimshaw describes her grandparents being forced to send her female parent to 1 of these schools or risk imprisonment. After hiding her mother on "schoolhouse pick upward day" and so as to avert sending their daughter to institutions whose abuse was well known at the fourth dimension (mid-20th century). Scrimshaw'southward mother was left with limited options for further education she says and is today illiterate equally a consequence.

Scrimshaw explains^[49] "Seven generations of my ancestors went through these schools. Each new family unit member enrolled meant a compounding of corruption and a steady loss of identity, culture and hope. My mother was the last generation. the feel left her cleaved, and similar so many, she turned to substances to numb these pains."

A written report, republished past CBC News,^[50] estimates nearly 6,000 children died in the care of these schools.

The colonisation of native peoples in Due north America remains agile today despite the endmost of the bulk of residential schools. This form of cultural imperialism continues in the utilize of Native Americans as mascots for schools and athletic teams. Jason Edward Black, a professor and chair in the Section of Communication Studies at the University of Northward Carolina at Charlotte, describes how the use of Native Americans every bit mascots furthers the colonial attitudes of the 18th and 19th centuries.^[51]

Indigenous groups, forth with cultural studies scholars, view the Native mascots as hegemonic devices–commodification tools–that advance a contemporary manifest destiny by marketing Native culture as Euromerican identity.

In Deciphering Pocahontas,^[52] Kent Ono and Derek Buescher wrote: "Euro-American civilization has fabricated a habit of appropriating, and redefining what is 'distinctive' and constitutive of Native Americans."

Nazi colonialism [edit]

Cultural imperialism has as well been used in connection with the expansion of German language influence nether the Nazis in the middle of the twentieth century. Alan Steinweis and Daniel Rogers note that fifty-fifty before the Nazis came to power, "Already in the Weimar Commonwealth, German bookish specialists on eastern Europe had contributed through their publications and teaching to the legitimization of German territorial revanchism and cultural imperialism. These scholars operated primarily in the disciplines of history, economics, geography, and literature."^[53]

In the surface area of music, Michael Kater writes that during the WWII German language occupation of French republic, Hans Rosbaud, a German conductor based past the Nazi regime in Strasbourg, became "at least nominally, a servant of Nazi cultural imperialism directed against the French."^[54]

In Italy during the war, Germany pursued "a European cultural front that gravitates effectually German culture". The Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels set upwards the European Union of Writers, "one of Goebbels'due south nigh aggressive projects for Nazi cultural hegemony. Presumably a means of gathering authors from Deutschland, Italy, and the occupied countries to plan the literary life of the new Europe, the wedlock shortly emerged as a vehicle of German cultural imperialism."^[55]

For other parts of Europe, Robert Gerwarth, writing about cultural imperialism and Reinhard Heydrich, states that the "Nazis' Germanization project was based on a historically unprecedented programme of racial stock-taking, theft, expulsion and murder." Also, "The full integration of the [Czech] Protectorate into this New Guild required the complete Germanization of the Protectorate's cultural life and the eradication of indigenous Czech and Jewish civilisation."^[56]

The actions by Nazi Germany reflect on the notion of race and culture playing a meaning role in imperialism. The idea that in that location is a distinction betwixt the Germans and the Jews has created the illusion of Germans believing they were superior to the Jewish inferiors, the notion of us/them and self/others.^{[57] [ relevance questioned ]}

Americanization [edit]

The terms "McDonaldization",^[58] "Disneyization" and "Cocacolonization"^[59] have been coined to depict the spread of Western cultural influence.

There are many countries affected by the U.s.a. and their pop-culture. For example, the motion picture industry in Nigeria referred to as "Nollywood" being the second largest every bit it produces more films annually than the United states, their films are shown across Africa.^[60] Some other term that describes the spread of Western cultural influence is "Hollywoodization" it is when American culture is promoted through Hollywood films which can culturally affect the viewers of Hollywood films.

See besides [edit]

• Related negative concepts
  • Colonial mentality
  • Cultural appropriation
  • Cultural assimilation
  • Cultural genocide
  • Ethnocide
  • Linguistic imperialism
  • Scientific imperialism
• Bear upon
  • Cross-culturalism
  • Cultural Cringe
  • Cultural revolution
  • Globalization
  • Revanchism
  • Right to exist
  • Transculturation
• Related examples
  • Cultural
    • Albanisation
    • Americanization
    • Arabization
    • Bulgarization
    • Chilenization
    • Dutchification
    • Europeanisation
    • Francization
    • Hawaiianization
    • Hispanicization
    • Persianization
    • Russification
    • Serbianisation
    • Sinicization
    • Sovietization
    • Thaification
    • Westernization
  • Theocultural
    • Christianization
    • Islamization

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Compare: Kraidy, Marwan Thousand. (2005). Hybridity, or the Cultural Logic of Globalization. Delhi: Pearson Education Bharat (published 2007). p. vi. ISBN9788131711002 . Retrieved 12 December 2020. Subsequently dissecting the deficiencies of the cultural imperialism thesis and its would-exist substitute 'cultural globalization,' I propound critical transculturalism as a new international advice framework with issues of hybridity at its core.
2. ^ Oxford English Lexicon, inside "cultural"
3. ^ Tomlinson (1991), p. two
4. ^ Hamm, (2005), p. 4
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f} White, Livingston A. "Reconsidering Cultural Imperialism Theory" Transnational Broadcasting Studies no.6 Spring/Summer 2001.
6. ^ Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey (2018). "Later American Studies: Rethinking the Legacies of Transnational Exceptionalism |". Routledge. p. 23. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
7. ^ ^{a b} Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey (2018). "After American Studies: Rethinking the Legacies of Transnational Exceptionalism |". Routledge. p. 24. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
8. ^ Schiller, Herbert I. (1976). Advice and cultural domination. International Arts and Sciences Printing, 901 North Broadway, White Plains, New York 10603. pp. 9–10. ISBN978-0-87332-079-five.
9. ^ McPhail, Thomas L. (1987). Electronic colonialism: the future of international dissemination and advice . Volume 126 of Sage library of social inquiry. Sage Publications. p. 18. ISBN978-0-8039-2730-8.
10. ^ Lee, P. S. (1988). "Advice imperialism and dependency: A conceptual description". International Communication Gazette. 41 (two): 69–83. doi:x.1177/001654928804100201. PMID 12283101. Quoting folio 74.
11. ^ Ogan, Christine (Spring 1988). "Media Imperialism and the Videocassette Recorder: The Case of Turkey". Journal of Communication. 38 (two): 94. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1988.tb02049.10.
12. ^ Downing, John; Ali Mohammadi; Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi (1995). Questioning the media: a critical introduction (2, illustrated ed.). SAGE. p. 482. ISBN978-0-8039-7197-four.
13. ^ ^{a b} Salwen, Michael B. (March 1991). "Cultural imperialism: A media furnishings arroyo". Disquisitional Studies in Media Advice. viii (1): 29–38. doi:10.1080/15295039109366778.
14. ^ Foucault, Michel. 1979. "Omnes et Singulatim: Towards a Criticism of Political Reason" in Faubion, James D. (ed.) Essential Works of Foucault, Volume iii: Power New York: The New Printing
15. ^ Foucault, Michel. 1979. "Truth and Power" in Faubion, James D. (ed.) Essential Works of Foucault, Volume 3: Power New York: The New Press
16. ^ Foucault, Michel. 1978. "Governmentality" in Faubion, James D. (ed.) Essential Works of Foucault, Volume 3: Power New York: The New Press
17. ^ Robert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the W, New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
18. ^ ^{a b} Saïd, Edward. 1978. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books
19. ^ Saïd, Edward. 1993. Civilisation and Imperialism New York: Pantheon Books
20. ^ Lahiri, Bulan (half-dozen February 2011). "Speaking to Spivak". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Retrieved nine December 2011.
21. ^ ^{a b} Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988. "Tin can the Subaltern Speak" Archived five January 2012 at the Wayback Motorcar
22. ^ Sayre, Shay; Cynthia Male monarch (2010). Entertainment and Society: Influences, Impacts, and Innovations (2nd ed.). Oxon, New York: Routledge. p. 31. ISBN978-0-415-99806-ii.
23. ^ ^{a b c} Sabrin, Mohammed (2013). "Exploring the intellectual foundations of Egyptian national education" (PDF). hdl:10724/28885.
24. ^ Monga, C. 1996. Anthropology of Anger: Civil Club and Democracy in Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner
25. ^ wa Thiongo, N. 1986. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. London: James Back-scratch.
26. ^ ^{a b c d} Abdi, Ali A (2000). "Globalization, Civilization, and Development: Perspectives on Africa". Journal of Culling Perspectives in the Social Sciences. two (1): one–26. CiteSeerX10.1.1.474.5351.
27. ^ ^{a b c} Dunn, Elizabeth C. 2004. Privatizing Poland: Baby Food, Big Business concern, and the Remaking of Labor Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
28. ^ ^{a b c d} Elyachar, Julia. 2005. Markets of Dispossession: NGOs, Economic Development, and the State in Cairo US: Knuckles University Press
29. ^ Mohanty, Chandra Talpade (1988). "Nether Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses". Feminist Review. 30 (30): 61–88. doi:10.1057/fr.1988.42. JSTOR 1395054.
30. ^ Dossa, Shiraz (2007). "Slicing Up 'Evolution': Colonialism, political theory, ethics". Tertiary Earth Quarterly. 28 (five): 887–899. doi:ten.1080/01436590701371595. S2CID 144101973.
31. ^ Tan, Alexis South.; Tan, Gerdean K.; Tan, Alma S. (1987). "American TV in the Philippines: A Test of Cultural Bear upon". Journalism Quarterly. 64: 65–144. doi:10.1177/107769908706400108. S2CID 145405598.
32. ^ Kang, Jong Geun; Morgan, Michael (1988). "Culture Clash: Touch of U.S. Idiot box in Korea". Journalism Quarterly. 65 (two): 431–438. doi:10.1177/107769908806500225. S2CID 144463700.
33. ^ Sparkes, Verone (1977). "TV across the Canadian Border: Does It Matter?". Journal of Advice. 27 (four): 40–47. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1977.tb01854.ten.
34. ^ Lechner, Frank J. and Boli, John (2009). The Globalization Reader (quaternary ed), Wiley-Blackwell. p.341
35. ^ Rothkopf, David, "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism", Strange Affairs, Summer 1997, Volume 107, pp. 38–53; all descriptions of Rothkopf'due south points and his quotes are from this article Archived 17 November 2008 at the Wayback Auto
36. ^ O'Meara, Patrick.; Mehlinger, Howard D.; Krain, Matthew. (2000). Globalization and the challenges of a new century : a reader . Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Printing. pp. 445–446. ISBN978-0-253-21355-6. 445 chinese.
37. ^ Caruso, Jennifer (2012). "Turn This Water into Wine". Australian Feminist Studies. 27 (73): 279–287. doi:10.1080/08164649.2012.705575. S2CID 146125147.
38. ^ ^{a b} Kolb, RW. (2007). Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society. SAGE Publications. p. 537. ISBN9781452265698.
39. ^ Ermatinger, JW. (2004). The Reject and Autumn of the Roman Empire. Greenwood Publishing Grouping. p. one. ISBN9780313326929.
40. ^ Goldhill, Due south. (2006). Being Greek Nether Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. ii & 114. ISBN9780521030878.
41. ^ Olson, JS.; Shadle, R., Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, Volume ii, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, p. 682.
42. ^ Bong, M., Geography and Imperialism, 1820–1940, Manchester University Printing, 1995, p. 182.
43. ^ Peers, DM.; Gooptu, N., India and the British Empire, OUP Oxford, 2012. p. 192.
44. ^ Webster, A., The Debate on the Rise of British Imperialism, Manchester Academy Press, 2006, p. 7.
45. ^ Raponi, D., Organized religion and Politics in the Risorgimento: Great britain and the New Italy, 1861–1875, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, pp. 56–58.
46. ^ Crawley, CW. (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 9, State of war and Peace in an Age of Upheaval, 1793–1830. Cambridge University Press, 1965, p. 126.
47. ^ Poley, J., Decolonisation in Germany: Weimar Narratives of Colonial Loss and Foreign Occupation, Peter Lang, 2007, pp. 165 & 216.
48. ^ "Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools". Facing History and Ourselves . Retrieved 3 March 2020.
49. ^ Scrimshaw, Gabrielle (30 June 2017). "Stance | Canada'southward Hidden History, My Female parent and Me". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on one January 2022. Retrieved iii March 2020.
50. ^ Schwartz, Daniel. "Residential School Students Had Aforementioned Odds of Dying as Soldiers in WW Ii". CBC News . Retrieved 3 March 2020.
51. ^ Blackness, Jason Edward (2002). "The "Mascotting" of Native America: Construction, Commodity, and Assimilation". American Indian Quarterly. 26 (iv): 605–622. doi:10.1353/aiq.2004.0003. ISSN 0095-182X. JSTOR 4128504. S2CID 162211313.
52. ^ Ono, Kent A.; Buescher, Derek T. (2001). "Deciphering Pocahontas: Unpackaging the commodification of a native American woman". Disquisitional Studies in Media Communication. 18: 23–43. doi:10.1080/15295030109367122. S2CID 143685050.
53. ^ Steinweis, AE; Rogers, DE., The Impact of Nazism: New Perspectives on the 3rd Reich and Its Legacy, U of Nebraska Press, 2003, p.72.
54. ^ Kater, MH., Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits, Oxford University Printing, USA, 1999, p.275.
55. ^ Ben-Ghiat, R., Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945, University of California Press, 2001, p.17.
56. ^ Gerwarth, R., Hitler'south Hangman: The Life of Heydrich, Yale Academy Press, 2011, p. 263.
57. ^ Gregory, Derek, Johnston, Ron, and Pratt, Geraldine, eds. Dictionary of Human being Geography (fifth Edition). Hoboken, NJ, The states: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. ProQuest ebrary. Web. i Feb 2015.
58. ^ George Ritzer (2009). The McDonaldization of Order. Los Angeles, U.s.: Pine Forge Press.
59. ^ Mark Pendergrast (fifteen August 1993). "Viewpoints; A Brief History of Coca-Colonization". The New York Times . Retrieved 25 November 2014.
60. ^ Martin, Judith N.; Nakayama, Thomas K. (xix Apr 2011), "Intercultural Communication and Dialectics Revisited", The Handbook of Disquisitional Intercultural Communication, Oxford, United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 59–83, doi:x.1002/9781444390681.ch5, ISBN978-1-4443-9068-1 , retrieved 26 October 2020

References [edit]

• Dunch, Ryan (2002). "Beyond Cultural Imperialism: Cultural Theory, Christian Missions, and Global Modernity". History and Theory. 41 (3): 301–325. doi:x.1111/1468-2303.00208. JSTOR 3590688.
• Hamm, Bernd; Russell Charles Smandych (2005). Cultural imperialism: essays on the political economic system of cultural domination . Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. University of Toronto Printing. ISBN978-1-55111-707-2.
• Lechner, Frank; John Boli (2009). The Globalization Reader. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Lechner, Frank; John Boli (2012). The Globalization Reader. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-470-65563-4.
• Tomlinson, John (1991). Cultural imperialism: a critical introduction (illustrated, reprint ed.). Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN978-0-8264-5013-5.
• White, Livingston A. (Spring–Summer 2001). "Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory". Transnational Broadcasting Studies. The Heart for Electronic Journalism at the American Academy in Cairo and the Centre for Middle East Studies, St. Antony's Higher, Oxford (half-dozen).

External links [edit]

• "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?", by David Rothkopf, Foreign Policy no. 107, Summer 1997, pp. 38–53, which argues that cultural imperialism is a positive thing.
• "Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory" by Livingston A. White, Transnational Broadcasting Studies no. 6, Spring/Summer 2001, which argues that the idea of media imperialism is outdated.
• Academic Spider web page from 24 February 2000, discussing the idea of cultural imperialism
• "Cultural Imperialism", BBC Radio 4 word with Linda Colley, Phillip Dodd and Mary Beard (In Our Time, 27 June 2002)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_imperialism

Posted by: smithprame1944.blogspot.com

Share this post